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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In 1315, Scotland’s King Robert the Bruce\ndecided to lay siege"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "to England's Carlisle Castle."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Robert expected a swift victory,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "but his men arrived to find\na relentless downpour."
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "they tried to fill the moat\nwith corn husks"
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Then Robert ordered the construction\nof a massive siege tower,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "but the English responded\nwith wooden scaffolds"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "that heightened the castle walls."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Their final push to scale those walls\nended with English arrows raining down"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "on the sodden Scots."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "At a time when sieges could last\nmonths or even years,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Robert retreated after just 11 days."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "This siege is a prime example\nof how medieval European castles"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "could stand firm against enemy onslaughts."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But castles weren’t just\nfor passive defense;"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "they were symbols of power,\nprivate residences,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and hubs of governance intended\nto impress and intimidate."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In fact, they were just as likely\nto be used for offensive military tactics."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Castles regularly served\nas bases for launching attacks"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and as a way to control local populations\nwith promises of shelter"
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    "tStartMs": 88584,
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "While citadels and fortified palaces could\nbe found as early as the 8th century BCE,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "European castles as we think of them"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "started appearing in large numbers\nin the late 9th century CE."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "At this time, the ruling\nCarolingian Empire was breaking down."
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      "utf8": "And as the monarch’s control"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "over his 1 million square kilometer\nrealm disintegrated,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "nobles began building castles\nto solidify their regional power."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "These early wooden castles\nfollowed the motte and bailey design,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "featuring a central tower\nbuilt atop a steep mound"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "with a walled yard at the base."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But over the following centuries,\nas castles became centers"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "of social, cultural, military,\nand political life,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 136299,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "their designs grew more varied\nand complex."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "By the 12th century, many wooden motte\nand baileys had been rebuilt with stone,"
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    "tStartMs": 145391,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "increasing their defense and longevity."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Subsequent castles built in stone\nfrom the start"
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    "tStartMs": 151564,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "used curtain walls and gatehouses\nto enclose the castle yard."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "And their walls and towers were often\ncoated in a layer of protective limewash,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "covering their stony grey\nwith a range of colorful tones."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Alongside their scale,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "visual beauty was a way\nfor castles to project power."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Castle Caernarfon in northern Wales"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "was built with bands of\ndifferent colored stone."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "And Crusader armies building castles\nin the Middle East"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "often incorporated elements of intricate\nIslamic and Byzantine architecture."
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      "utf8": "But as European castles\nbecame more widespread,"
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Fire had long threatened\nwooden motte and baileys,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and while their stone counterparts\nwere more resistant,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "their underlying wooden structure\nwas still vulnerable to arson."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Battering rams cracked castle doors,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "siege towers and mining operations\nthwarted castle walls,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and trebuchets launching stones\nup to 130 kilograms"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "endangered entire structures."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Rectangular castle towers\nwere especially vulnerable"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "since their square corners\nhad fewer load bearing stones."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Fortunately, when the Crusaders\nreturned to Europe from the Middle East,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Featuring numerous rings of\ndefensive walls around a central tower,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "this approach created a circular fortress\nwith multiple layers of siege security."
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      "utf8": "From the 13th century onward,\nthis design reigned supreme,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "even standing up to the small cannons\nthat had begun spreading across Europe."
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "this kind of construction\nwas prohibitively expensive."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "most local nobles couldn’t keep\nup with the costs,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and became reliant\non strong centralized rulers"
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "This financial and political pressure,\nalongside advances in gunpowder weapons,"
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      "utf8": "put an end to castles’ military dominance."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Most of these fortresses\nwere converted to residences,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "administrative centers, or prisons,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and today many still serve as tourist\nattractions and private estates."
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      "utf8": "But while they no longer protect\ntheir inhabitants from sieging armies,"
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