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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In 1856, quarriers working a cave\nin Germany’s Neander Valley"
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  }, {
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      "utf8": "discovered several mysterious fossils."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "The remains changed hands\nuntil being identified"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "as the skullcap and femur bones"
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4546,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "of something ancient and human,\nbut not quite us."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "It soon became clear they belonged\nto an extinct human species—"
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  }, {
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      "utf8": "the first ever known to science:"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Homo neanderthalensis,\nor simply, Neanderthals."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Not long before the discovery,"
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4421,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "many believed the world was only\nabout 6,000 years old."
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 48628,
    "dDurationMs": 2711,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "However, by the mid-1800s,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 51339,
    "dDurationMs": 4004,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "naturalists were more comfortable\nwith geological timelines"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 55343,
    "dDurationMs": 2043,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and evolutionary theory."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "The idea that ancient remains could belong\nto another human species"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 63017,
    "dDurationMs": 2795,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "was finally becoming conceivable."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But misconceptions persisted,\nand much “Neander slander” ensued."
    } ]
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Early on, Neanderthals were\ndepicted as dim-witted oafs"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "who died out because of their inferiority\nto modern humans,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 82203,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "aka Homo sapiens."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "One popular illustration suggested that,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "in addition to being hairy\nand club-carrying,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Neanderthals stooped\nand had ape-like opposable toes,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "even though this wasn’t reflected\nin skeletal findings."
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 2002,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Over the next century, however,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 103432,
    "dDurationMs": 4171,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "archaeologists discovered\nmore hominin species,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 107728,
    "dDurationMs": 5339,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "as well as the remains of over 300\nNeanderthal individuals."
    } ]
  }, {
    "tStartMs": 113401,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Compared to modern humans,\nNeanderthals had larger, deeper-set eyes;"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "were shorter and more muscular,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 121826,
    "dDurationMs": 4296,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "had higher caloric needs\nwith slightly bigger bodies,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 126164,
    "dDurationMs": 2627,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "including their hearts and brains."
    } ]
  }, {
    "tStartMs": 129167,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "For over 350,000 years,\nthey lived across Europe and Western Asia."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "For at least their final 10,000 years,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "they spatially overlapped\nwith Homo sapiens."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "And archaeological finds have suggested\nthat they led much more complex lives"
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    "tStartMs": 149061,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "than initially suspected."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In the 1950s, scientists unearthed\nthe remains of a Neanderthal"
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    "tStartMs": 156986,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "in a cave in northern Iraq who had\na severed right arm, injured leg,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 162658,
    "dDurationMs": 3295,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and was likely partially blind and deaf."
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 166120,
    "dDurationMs": 3545,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Yet, he survived long after\nthese injuries,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 169665,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "suggesting his community provided him\nextensive, daily support."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "And another skeleton from a French cave\nbelonged to an older Neanderthal"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "who probably had trouble walking"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 182887,
    "dDurationMs": 4755,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and had lost so many teeth he may\nhave needed his food ground up."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Both excavation sites\nalso showed signs of burial,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "all suggesting that Neanderthals\nwent beyond"
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    "segs": [ {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and cared for their ailing and dead."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Teeth analyses also indicate\nthat Neanderthals"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "might have used anti-inflammatory\nand antibiotic plants medicinally."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "For a while, researchers assumed\nthat Neanderthals hunted big game"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "with unsophisticated, brute force\nambush attacks."
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 222718,
    "dDurationMs": 2503,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But cut marks on rabbit bones"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and tools with apparent traces\nof scales and feathers"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 229016,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "suggest Neanderthals were capable of the\nskill required to capture small game,"
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4421,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "perhaps utilizing snares\nand fast-moving projectiles."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 5130,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In fact, we know they fashioned\nand wielded many types of tools,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "sometimes affixing them with glue\nthey made from heated birch bark."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "They also shaped hardwood\ndigging sticks with fire"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and created reinforced, 3-ply string\nusing bark fibers."
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 261048,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Other findings have also raised questions"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "about whether Neanderthals\nthought symbolically,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "seeing beyond direct utility,\ninto realms like art and language,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 272852,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "long considered a hallmark\nof Homo sapiens."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Potentially for personal adornment,\nthere’s evidence of Neanderthals"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "selectively removing\nbird’s flight feathers,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "painting and perforating shells,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and wrapping eagle talons in what seems to\nhave been another kind of animal tissue."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "They likewise made markings\non a giant elk’s toe bone"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and created three cave paintings in Spain,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 302381,
    "dDurationMs": 5255,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "if the original 65,000-year-old\ndating estimate holds."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Meanwhile, broken, rearranged,\nand burned stalagmites"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "deep within a French cave"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "left scientists wondering if the\nmysterious structures"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "held spiritual or ceremonial significance\nto Neanderthals."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Clearly, they weren’t as different\nas originally believed."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "And following the first fully sequenced\nNeanderthal genome in 2010,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "researchers realized\nour species interbred."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "All modern humans retain some\nNeanderthal DNA—"
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 2085,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "up to about 4%—"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "the result of hundreds of discrete\ninterbreeding events."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "So, what happened to Neanderthals?"
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 5672,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Theories from rampant cannibalism,\nto disease and climate change,"
    } ]
  }, {
    "tStartMs": 361148,
    "dDurationMs": 3379,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "to aggressive Homo sapiens\nhave been floated."
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But another idea is that,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "because Neanderthals lived\nin smaller groups,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "as they interbred with larger populations\nof Homo sapiens,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "they just sort of got gradually absorbed."
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      "utf8": "Overall, consensus has begun shifting away"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "from representing human evolution\nas tree-like"
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      "utf8": "and more towards a kind\nof braided stream,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "with different hominin groups separating\nand rejoining at various junctures."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "As we continue to learn more\nabout our evolutionary cousins,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "each discovery raises questions\nabout just how much we share."
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