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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "You probably know the feeling."
    } ]
  }, {
    "tStartMs": 8654,
    "dDurationMs": 3855,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Your phone utters \nits final plaintive \"bleep\""
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 12509,
    "dDurationMs": 2408,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and cuts out in the middle of your call."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 3885,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "In that moment, you may feel more\nlike throwing your battery across the room"
    } ]
  }, {
    "tStartMs": 18802,
    "dDurationMs": 2053,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "than singing its praises,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "but batteries are a triumph of science."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 3344,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "They allow smartphones \nand other technologies to exist"
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4457,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "without anchoring us \nto an infernal tangle of power cables."
    } ]
  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 3285,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Yet even the best batteries\nwill diminish daily,"
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  }, {
    "tStartMs": 35769,
    "dDurationMs": 3948,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "slowly losing capacity \nuntil they finally die."
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 1384,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "So why does this happen,"
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4470,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and how do our batteries even store\nso much charge in the first place?"
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      "utf8": "It all started in the 1780s\nwith two Italian scientists,"
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      "utf8": "Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and a frog."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Legend has it that as Galvani\nwas studying a frog's leg,"
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      "utf8": "he brushed a metal instrument \nup against one of its nerves,"
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    "tStartMs": 62233,
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "making the leg muscles jerk."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Galvani called this animal electricity,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "believing that a type of electricity\nwas stored in the very stuff of life."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "But Volta disagreed,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "arguing that it was the metal itself\nthat made the leg twitch."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "The debate was eventually settled\nwith Volta's groundbreaking experiment."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "He tested his idea with a stack\nof alternating layers of zinc and copper,"
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  }, {
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    "dDurationMs": 4628,
    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "separated by paper or cloth\nsoaked in a salt water solution."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "What happened in Volta's cell is something\nchemists now call oxidation and reduction."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "The zinc oxidizes,\nwhich means it loses electrons,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "which are, in turn, gained by the ions in\nthe water in a process called reduction,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "producing hydrogen gas."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Volta would have been shocked \nto learn that last bit."
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      "utf8": "He thought the reaction \nwas happening in the copper,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "rather than the solution."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "None the less, \nwe honor Volta's discovery today"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "by naming our standard unit \nof electric potential \"the volt.\""
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "This oxidation-reduction cycle creates\na flow of electrons between two substances"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and if you hook a lightbulb \nor vacuum cleaner up between the two,"
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  }, {
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "you'll give it power."
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      "utf8": "Since the 1700s, scientists have improved\non Volta's design."
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      "utf8": "They've replaced the chemical solution\nwith dry cells filled with chemical paste,"
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      "utf8": "but the principle is the same."
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      "utf8": "A metal oxidizes, \nsending electrons to do some work"
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      "utf8": "before they are regained \nby a substance being reduced."
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      "utf8": "But any battery has a finite \nsupply of metal,"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and once most of it has oxidized, \nthe battery dies."
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      "utf8": "So rechargeable batteries give us \na temporary solution to this problem"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "by making the oxidation-reduction \nprocess reversible."
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      "utf8": "Electrons can flow back \nin the opposite direction"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "with the application of electricity."
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      "utf8": "Plugging in a charger draws \nthe electricity from a wall outlet"
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      "utf8": "that drives the reaction \nto regenerate the metal,"
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      "utf8": "making more electrons available \nfor oxidation the next time you need them."
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      "utf8": "But even rechargeable batteries \ndon't last forever."
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "Over time, the repetition of this process\ncauses imperfections"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and irregularities in the metal's surface\nthat prevent it from oxidizing properly."
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      "utf8": "The electrons are no longer available\nto flow through a circuit"
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    "segs": [ {
      "utf8": "and the battery dies."
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      "utf8": "while newer, advanced batteries\ncan survive and function for thousands."
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      "utf8": "Batteries of the future \nmay be light, thin sheets"
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      "utf8": "that operate on the principles \nof quantum physics"
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      "utf8": "and last for hundreds \nof thousands of charge cycles."
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      "utf8": "But until scientists find a way \nto take advantage of motion"
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      "utf8": "to recharge your cell battery,\nlike cars do,"
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      "utf8": "or fit solar panels \nsomewhere on your device,"
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      "utf8": "plugging your charger into the wall,"
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